Discussing Post-Colonization and Tourism in Jamaica- Juniper Publishers
Archaeology & Anthropology- Juniper Publishers
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to provide a stimulating
discussion on the relationship between post-colonization and tourism in
Jamaica. The postcolonial theory is used to expand the epistemology of
the relationship between post-colonization and tourism and provide
plausible explanations concerning their association. This discussion
paper also serves to advance the paradigms of cultural identity and the
three presences by linking them to the concepts of nation culture and
national identity and how these phenomena help to stimulate the
development of tourism in Jamaica. Additionally, the concept of the
tourist gaze is incorporated in the analysis to show how
post-colonization serves the tourists from both site and event
attraction experiences. This ostensibly benefits Jamaica socially,
culturally and economically. In summary, the discussion paper analyzes
the impact of post-colonization on tourism in Jamaica and is intended to
create a better understanding regarding the use of a destination's
cultural and historic legacies for tourism. It will also contribute
significantly to the areas of tourism planning and development,
destination marketing, anthropology, sociology, psychology and cultural
studies.
Keywords: Post-Colonization; Tourism; Cultural identity; Shared culture; Sense of difference; Three presences <
Introduction
Tourism is not a new phenomenon to Jamaica as it became an economic activity over 200 years ago [1]. Xaymaca, the land of wood and water as exclaimed by Christopher Columbus, has become a renowned destination since the 19th century when Captain Lorenzo Baker brought the first set of tourists from the United States of America on his banana boat [2].
Although the wood and water have been Jamaica's focal tourism offering
for scenic view and water activities, there are other features of this
Caribbean island destination that contribute to the experience of the
tourists. These include the Jamaican people, cuisine, places of interest
and sporting activities to name a few. Interestingly, these can be
described as legacies of colonization and manifestations of the
plantation system and thus, features of post-colonization. The concept
of post-colonization is described as anything that happens after the
colonization era [3].
Despite the many writings on Jamaica's history,
heritage and culture, the gap in the literature shows the need to
conduct an in-depth analysis of the relationship between
post-colonization and tourism in Jamaica. The understanding of the
relationship between post-colonization and tourism is not widespread.
Likewise, the use of its cultural and historic legacies for tourism may
not be fully accepted. This is because the plantation system is viewed
as an institutional arrangement where forced labor is used for the
production and marketing of crops. The belief is that this historical
epoch is currently impacting the social structure of the Jamaican
society [4].
A study of this nature specifically focusing on
Jamaica is however, fundamental as this destination highly depends on
the tourism economy [5]
as well as it epitomizes the transition from colonization to
decolonization and by extension postcolonization. Consequently, the
remnants of Jamaica’s history have become extremely useful as a part of
its tourism product. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to
critically discuss the notion of post-colonization and its relationship
with tourism in Jamaica. It particularly examines the works of Stuart
Hall relating to cultural identity and Aime' Cesaire' regarding the
three presences, namely, African, European and American. The discourse
of cultural identity is explained within two frameworks; the first one
refers to shared culture which is based on collectivism and describes
the ‘one true self’ and the second is associated with the "sense of
difference" which pertains to the transformation and reshaping of
culture. The three presences characterize the nature of
post-colonization in terms of the cultural background of the Jamaican
people, the socio-political structure which governs the people and the
expectations of the visitors.
This discussion paper advances the paradigms of cultural identity and the three presences by linking them to the concept of nation culture
and how this phenomenon helps to stimulate the development of tourism
in Jamaica. The post-colonial theory establishes the framework of this
discussion because it explains the cultural aspects of post-colonies and
analyzes the cultural legacy of colonization. It will provide plausible
explanations for the association between post-colonization and tourism
since many colonies are now tourist destinations [6] where their culture and heritage are being used for tourism [7].
Discussion
Post-colonization and tourism in Jamaican
Jamaica has a very rich cultural background that is
linked to its colonial history. Prior to the Europeans (Spanish and
English) in the 15th century, the island was inhabited by the
Amerindians. Jamaica was subsequently colonized by the Europeans who
institutionalized forced labor supported by the African slave trade.
After the abolition of slavery in 1834, the Chinese and Indians were
taken to the island as alternate labor force for the plantations. The
rich cultural and heritage platform on which Jamaica stands is due to
the "presences" of the ethnic groups who populated Jamaica and which
have established the identity of the Jamaican people as well.
Within this context, it is important to outline the
paradigms of cultural identity and the three presences as they relate to
the concepts of nation culture and national identity and how these
phenomena help to stimulate the development of tourism in Jamaica. The
following section will also explain how the tourist gaze as proposed by
Urry J [8] is stimulating economic activity for Jamaica through its post-colonization features.
Cultural identity
The traditions and practices of the various ethnic
groups who populated Jamaica have culminated to form the Jamaican
culture which has been passed on from one generation to another. Based
on this historical amalgamation of culture, the two frameworks of
cultural identity proposed by Stuart Hall, a Jamaican-born culturalist
and sociologist seem applicable in explaining the phenomenon of being a
Jamaican. These are the principles of shared culture and the sense of
difference [9].
Because the Jamaican people can be described by the
collective characteristics that depict 'one true self' with a 'oneness'
of what they do and how they do it, this phenomenon can be explicitly
explained as shared culture. However, despite having a shared culture,
each ethnic group, namely the dominant African-Jamaican (Black), Indian,
Chinese, or Jamaican-White, is identifiable by their distinct culture
and this speaks to the sense of difference. The practices of the shared
culture yet the distinctive differences among the ethnic groups have now
become a major post-colonization hallmark for Jamaica and are been used
or incorporated into the tourism offerings by way of its music, dance,
food, local language and other elements of attraction.
The shared culture has created a national identity
for the Jamaican people. This national identity which stems from
colonization is actually benefitting the country as the remnants of
slavery are now legacies for the tourism industry. For example: the
Jamaican cuisine including the use of the jerk cooking method and jerk
sauces is a major aspect of the tourism product. This practice was
developed by the African, now named Maroons who ran away to the
mountains. They used this method of cooking to sustain them, having only
natural resources from the vegetation and animals in the mountains.
Another example is that the local dance movements are an amalgamation of
the European ball room and African dance forms.
Despite the importance of having a distinct national
identity where it creates and establishes a stable nation and country,
it is believed that it "can limit the social, cultural, and economic
progress of a decolonized people" [10].
The national identity of Jamaica, however, appears to be beneficial to
tourism as the purpose of visit to the destination for the majority of
tourists/ visitors fall in the category of leisure, pleasure and holiday
(73.3%) when compared to other reasons such as business or visiting
friends and family [11].
This category of travel includes visits to heritage sites, local
entertainment and cuisine among other culture and heritage offerings.
The three presences
The three presences posited by Aime' Cesaire', a
politician and author from Martinique, regarding the African, European
and American influence is also important for Jamaica’s tourism. As
explained below, the presences of the Europeans, Africans and Americans
in Jamaica have significantly influenced the political, social, cultural
and economic structure of the country and consequently tourism
development.
The Europeans: The Europeans characterized the
nature of post-colonization in terms of the socio-political structure
which governs the country. The Spanish were enterprising with the slave
trade by bringing Africans to Jamaica. Then the British arrived and they
continued with colonization where African slaves were used as forced
laborers for the production of sugar cane and its derivatives such as
sugar and molasses, as well as tobacco and other agricultural
provisions.
With the colonized system, the Europeans established
models of the socio-economic and political governance structure from
Europe. The British succeeded the Spanish in ruling Jamaica and hence,
their systems and institutions are more predominant in Jamaica. The
current institutions in Jamaica remain models of the British system;
hence, they influence the socio-political environment of the nation. The
parliamentary, judiciary and education institutions are examples of the
British model. The parliamentary institution regulates the operations
of the tourism industry through the establishment of government ministry
and agencies for planning and marketing, as well as instituting laws
and policies. The judiciary framework regulates the laws and the
education institutions train individuals for the tourism industry.
Consequently, the British influences the cultural
practices of Jamaicans. This according to Antonio Gramsci, an Italian
politician, suggests cultural leadership which denotes the dominance of
certain cultural forms. Cultural leadership is associated with
the concept of hegemony which is the leadership or dominance by a
country or social group over another, thus, the term cultural hegemony.
It is believed that cultural hegemony can manipulate the culture of the
society through the imposition of beliefs, explanations, perceptions,
values and mores [12]. Said EW [13]
emphasize Gramsci's theory of cultural hegemony within the context that
hegemony is important in understanding the cultural life of the
industrial West society. It is the belief that the European culture is
hegemonic and this makes the European identity superior when compared to
Non-European peoples and cultures, both in and outside of Europe.
The Europeans have also left their mark on the
physical surroundings as there are now places of interests that are
being used as attractions for tourists. For example, the many great
houses, once known as plantation houses which accommodated the
plantation/slave owners. These include the Seville, Bellefield, Halse
Hall and Greenwood Great Houses. Some of the vernacular architecture of
the Europeans still remains as in the case of Spanish Town, the first
capital of Jamaica. The Catholic Churches established by the Spanish and
the Anglican churches by the British show the difference in
architectural design and the distinguishing red and brown bricks
respectively. In relation to sporting activities, the game of cricket
was brought here by the English. It was further incorporated into the
Jamaican culture by the Indians whose country was similarly colonized by
the British. In 2008, the Cricket World Cup was held in the Caribbean.
Jamaica was one of its main hosts and the event attracted many visitors
to the island [14].
The africans: The presence of the Africans is
one of the most distinguishing features of post-colonization in Jamaica.
Today, the majority of the Jamaican population is of African heritage [15].
This majority black population has a resounding mark on Jamaica's
culture which is incorporated into the tourism offerings. For example,
the amalgamation of their particular food, flavor and cooking practices
have tremendously contributed to the uniqueness of the Jamaican cuisine.
A typical example is ackee and saltfish with roast breadfruit; the
ackee was brought from West Africa and the breadfruit brought by Captain
Blight from Tahiti. Interestingly, this dish includes salted cod fish
which was brought by the Europeans and used as ration for the slaves.
The palatable rice and peas is a one pot meal cooked by the slaves to
"stretch" the meal for the family. Gizzada, grater cakes and drops were
local confectionaries made by the African slaves to pattern the European
pies and confectionaries. Cornmeal and potato puddings also patterned
the European cakes and puddings. The process of jerk and the use of the
specific marinates were conceptualized by the Maroons when they lived in
the hills and had to find creative means of sustaining their diet. They
hunted wild pigs, seasoned them with natural herbs and used pimento
sticks over pits to cook the meat, resulting in today's delectable
delights of jerk pork, chicken and even fish; and bottled seasoning sold
to tourists.
The Jamaican spoken language, Patois, is very
distinctive and distinguishing. This highly admirable language comprises
a mixture of West and Central African; and European languages,
predominantly English and French. Its emergence stemmed from the
creativity of the African slaves in developing a language to communicate
among them as they were from different parts of Africa. Interestingly,
no matter the ethnic background of a Jamaican, Patois is known,
understood and spoken and therefore, symbolizes Jamaica. Visitors to
Jamaica yearn to speak this local language.
The Americans: The presence of the American is
also an important element of tourism in Jamaica as they were among the
first tourists to visit this destination [1].
According to the Jamaica Tourist Board (2016), of the 2,181,684
stopover visitors to the destination in 2015, majority of them (64.4%)
are from the United States of America (USA) when compared to other
source markets as indicated in Table 1.
This has been the trend for many years where almost
two- thirds of the market source for tourism in Jamaica is from the USA.
This suggests that this market segment has been contributing to the
economy in a significant way through their spending on the tourism
offerings. In 2016, stopover visitors to Jamaican spent an estimated
total of US$2.459 million [11]. Excluding the amount spent on food and beverage included in the expenditure for accommodation Table 2
shows that 24 percent collectively is spent on food and beverage,
entertainment and shopping. These are likely to include elements of the
Jamaican culture.
Tourist gaze
[8]
purports that the gaze is a central element of the tourist's
experience. The visual aspect of a destination is a very important
feature of a tourist gaze. These are pull factors for tourists that will
add pleasure to their encounters [16]
and further motivate them to revisit the destination. Studies show that
the "new tourist" desires more than the sun, sand and sea offerings.
They seek adventure; they want to explore; they are desirous of being
educated and informed; and they want to be involved and participate in
cultural and heritage activities [17]. The postcolonization tourism offerings in Jamaica provide the desired gaze and experience for the tourists.
Through visits to culture and heritage sites such as
the Maroon villages, great houses, historical towns to include Falmouth
and Spanish Town; events to include Reggae Sun Splash and Fun in the Son
(annual gospel event); street food events and sites, and the natural
landscape such as Fern Gully, Holland Bamboo and Black River, visitors
are able to gaze on these features for fun and ecstasy.
According to [18]
these cultural representations actually define tourism. Furthermore,
their pictorial depictions and images are used as memorabilia and as
Pine II and Gilmore (1999) purports; they positively influence the
visitors' experience. Sinclair-Maragh G [20]
adds that visitors tend to take souvenirs back home with them and this
entices them to recall their visit and share their experiences with
others. Visual images are likewise important in marketing a destination [19]. However, in examining the visual images used in marketing Jamaica’s tourism, Walters NH [16]
find that post-colonial images representing the heritage and material
culture of Jamaica was not widely used when compared to both elements of
paradise/ recreation images and nature/landscape images. Nonetheless,
this category is one of the dominant thematic groups identified in the
marketing thrust. The images in this category represent cultural events,
local cuisine and art as well as historical sites. They have the
propensity to create competitive advantage for the destination as
persons will be motivated to travel to the destination when these are
seen.
Conclusion
The purpose ofthis study is to provide a stimulating
discussion on the relationship between post-colonization and tourism in
Jamaica, using postcolonial theory to expand the epistemology of the
relationship and provide plausible explanations concerning their
association. The discussion surrounding the relationship between
post-colonization and tourism is imperative because the economy of
Jamaica highly depends on this industry for sustainability. The analysis
shows that Jamaica’s uniqueness is underpinned by the shared culture
from ethnic and racial diversity in its population as well as from the
sense of difference within each of these groups. Additionally, the
remnants of Jamaica's history based on its colonial jurisdictions have
become extremely significant to its tourism product as the new type of
tourist is seeking a fulfilling experience through adventure,
exploration, education and engagement with the local culture and
heritage assets. These post-colonial elements are in fact being used to
provide such experiences.
The post-colonial theory has provided explanations to
the relationship between post-colonialism and tourism as it explains
the cultural legacies of colonialism left by the Europeans. These
include the introduction of immigrants (Indian and Chinese) to the
socio-economic framework, the political structure, education system
among other elements which dictate and guide the management of tourism
as an industry in Jamaica. It also explains the use of post-colonization
elements for the tourist gaze in that the culture and heritage tourism
offerings are from that era and they now provide attraction,
entertainment and education for visitors.
This discourse regarding post-colonization and
tourism may be controversial but obviously the aforementioned features
of the Jamaican society which are the legacies of colonization are
actually being used for tourism. This can be the catalyst for the future
growth and development of tourism in Jamaica through product
diversification, leading to the destination having a competitive
advantage within the Caribbean. This is especially important since
countries in this region also rely heavily on tourism. This form of
tourism can complement the mass tourism feature of the sun, sand and sea
as well as serve as an alternative form of tourism for tourists to be
engaged and participate in these offerings.
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